A const & refers to a nonvolatile variable. The variable changes. Does the change invalidate the const &?

In C++, can the value of a const & change?

Well, of course it cannot change, can it? That's what const means. Moreover, listen to Stroustrup:

A const lvalue reference refers to a constant, which is immutable from the point of view of the user of the reference.

But what about this?

#include <iostream>

int main() {
    int           a = 0;
    const int&    r = a;
    const int old_r = r;
    ++a;
    const int new_r = r;
    std::cout
      <<      "old_r == " << old_r
      << " but new_r == " << new_r << std::endl;
    return 0;
}

On my machine, this outputs, old_r == 0 but new_r == 1.

That gets to my real question. In the above code, look at the line

    const int new_r = r;

Insofar as

• the address &new_r is extracted neither on this line nor elsewhere in the code and
• the code has nothing volatile,

does anything prevent an optimizing compiler from merging old_r and new_r into a single constant object, treating the line as though it read as follows?

    const int& new_r = old_r;

I ask because, as far as I know, if the compiler did so optimize, that might alter the behavior. The program might output, old_r == 0 but new_r == 0.

RELATED QUESTIONS

The most nearly related existing question I find is this one:

• (C language) Can const be changed? (See especially the linked question's point no. 1.)

The following are also related but, unlike the present question, involve casts:

• Changing the value of a const
• Two different values at the same memory address
• Modifying constant object
• Changing the value of const variable [duplicate]
• (C language) Accessing a non-const through const declaration
• (C language) Can we modify the value of a const variable?
• (C language) Const variable value is changed by using a pointer
• (C language) Confusion regarding modification of const variable using pointers
• (C language) Weird Behaviour with const_cast [duplicate]

See also N4659 (draft C++17 standard), sect. 10.1.7.1, "The cv-qualifiers."

The quote of Stroustrup at the top of the question comes from sect. 7.7.2 of The C++ Programming Language, 4th ed. Of course, no author can write every sentence perfectly in a thousand-page book; yet perhaps Stroustrup is clear and I have merely read him wrong. Nevertheless, you might see why the sentence has confused me. This is why I have asked.

In C++, can the value of a const & change?

Yes, but not through that reference (ignoring mutable fields).

void foo(const int& c, int& mut) {
    std::cout << c << " ";
    ++mut; // changes `c` if &c == &mut
    std::cout << c << std::endl;
}

and

int a = 42;
foo(a, a); // 42 43

does anything prevent an optimizing compiler from merging old_r and new_r into a single constant object, treating the line as though it read as follows?

The as-if rule allows compiler to optimize if visible side effect are the same,
which is not the case here. So your "proposed merge of variable" in your code cannot be done fortunately.