[SOLVED] Loading and running a raw binary file with 32-bit code in QEMU

I don't know why you don't wish to use ELF executables for your code especially if you are writing a kernel.

There is no way of getting QEMU to directly run an arbitrary binary file. As well, the code you have would need to be in 32-bit protected mode to run properly (since it uses bits 32). The only requirements you have given are that it run in QEMU and the binary file with instructions and/or data in it not be modified.

The Multiboot specification allows you to use simple ELF files with a proper Multiboot header. Using multiboot is the best option here since it already sets up 32-bit protected mode; Enables the A20 line; and loads data and code into memory. This is a lot of work you don't have to code yourself.

What you can do is create a Multiboot wrapper in NASM that has a simple Multiboot header in it and includes the binary file with code in it. The following example will create a Multiboot compliant ELF executable that has the header at 0x100000 in memory and the kernel at 0x101000. This code uses NASM's incbin directive to include a binary file directly into the assembly file containing the Multiboot header and the entry point.

mboot.asm

bits 32
global _start

MB1_MAGIC    equ 0x1badb002
MB1_FLAGS    equ 0x00000000
MB1_CHECKSUM equ -(MB1_MAGIC+MB1_FLAGS)

section .data
align 4
    dd MB1_MAGIC
    dd MB1_FLAGS
    dd MB1_CHECKSUM

section .text
_start:
    incbin "kernel.bin"

kernel.asm

bits 32
start:
    mov dword [0xb8000], 0x2f4b2f4f
    hlt

You first have to build your kernel.asm to a binary file called kernel.bin with:

nasm -fbin kernel.asm -o kernel.bin

Then you have to assemble the multiboot wrapper with:

nasm -felf32 mboot.asm -o mboot.o

Finally link it to an ELF executable called kernel.elf with:

ld -Ttext=0x101000 -Tdata=0x100000 -melf_i386 mboot.o -o kernel.elf

This Multiboot compliant ELF executable can be run in QEMU with the -kernel option like this:

qemu-system-i386 -kernel kernel.elf

The output when run should look something like:

Additional Note

As your kernel binary grows and you need to make references to absolute memory locations via labels, you will need to tell NASM that the virtual memory address (VMA) where your kernel binary is loaded is at 0x101000. That can be done using the ORG directive like this:

bits 32
org 0x101000

start:
    mov dword [0xb8000], 0x2f4b2f4f
    hlt

This code doesn't require the ORG directive because it doesn't need the absolute address of a label anywhere in the code, but this may change as your code expands in the future. An example of code that won't work if you don't properly specify the ORG (origin point) is as follows:

; Example program that uses an absolute reference to a label
; that won't work unless a proper ORG is used. Removing the ORG
; or using the wrong value will cause the code to not work as
; expected

org 0x101000
bits 32
start:
    mov eax, [okmsg]          ; Using an absolute reference to a label
    mov dword [0xb8000], eax  ; Write value to display
    hlt

okmsg: dd  0x2f4b2f4f

As stated at the beginning of the answer I don't really recommend this approach but I am providing a solution that allows you to run the code you presented that was placed in a binary file that you say can't be changed.

Floppy bootloader that loads and runs a protected mode kernel

If you don't want to use Multiboot and wish to create a disk image this rather simplified bootloader that:

Enables A20 line
Loads code/data from disk to memory starting @ 0x00008000
Enters 32-bit protected mode
Executes the code

This code is based on code from a few of my other answers. One is a bootloader that executes code in 16-bit real mode. I modified it with code I used in a question that enables A20 and enters protected mode.

boot.asm

STAGE2_ABS_ADDR  equ 0x08000
STAGE2_RUN_SEG   equ 0x0000
STAGE2_RUN_OFS   equ STAGE2_ABS_ADDR
                                ; Run stage2 with segment of 0x0000 and offset of 0x8000

STAGE2_LOAD_SEG  equ STAGE2_ABS_ADDR>>4
                                ; Segment to start reading Stage2 into
                                ;     right after bootloader

STAGE2_LBA_START equ 1          ; Logical Block Address(LBA) Stage2 starts on
                                ;     LBA 1 = sector after boot sector
STAGE2_LBA_END   equ STAGE2_LBA_START + NUM_STAGE2_SECTORS
                                ; Logical Block Address(LBA) Stage2 ends at
DISK_RETRIES     equ 3          ; Number of times to retry on disk error

bits 16
ORG 0x7c00

; Include a BPB (1.44MB floppy with FAT12) to be more compatible with USB floppy media
%ifdef WITH_BPB
%include "bpb.inc"
%endif

boot_continue:
    xor ax, ax                  ; DS=SS=0 for stage2 loading
    mov ds, ax
    mov ss, ax                  ; Stack at 0x0000:0x7c00
    mov sp, 0x7c00
    cld                         ; Set string instructions to use forward movement

    ; Read Stage2 1 sector at a time until stage2 is completely loaded
load_stage2:
    mov [bootDevice], dl        ; Save boot drive
    mov di, STAGE2_LOAD_SEG     ; DI = Current segment to read into
    mov si, STAGE2_LBA_START    ; SI = LBA that stage2 starts at
    jmp .chk_for_last_lba       ; Check to see if we are last sector in stage2

.read_sector_loop:
    mov bp, DISK_RETRIES        ; Set disk retry count

    call lba_to_chs             ; Convert current LBA to CHS
    mov es, di                  ; Set ES to current segment number to read into
    xor bx, bx                  ; Offset zero in segment

.retry:
    mov ax, 0x0201              ; Call function 0x02 of int 13h (read sectors)
                                ;     AL = 1 = Sectors to read
    int 0x13                    ; BIOS Disk interrupt call
    jc .disk_error              ; If CF set then disk error

.success:
    add di, 512>>4              ; Advance to next 512 byte segment (0x20*16=512)
    inc si                      ; Next LBA

.chk_for_last_lba:
    cmp si, STAGE2_LBA_END      ; Have we reached the last stage2 sector?
    jl .read_sector_loop        ;     If we haven't then read next sector

.stage2_loaded:
    mov si, noa20_err           ; Default error message to A20 enable error
    call a20_enable             ; Enable A20 line
    jz error_print              ; If the A20 line isn't enabled, print error and stop

    lgdt [gdtr]                 ; Load GDT for 32-bit protected mode

    cli                         ; Disable interrupts since we don't have an IDT setup
    mov eax, cr0                ; Read CR0 register
    or eax, 1                   ; Enable protected mode flage (bit 0)
    mov cr0, eax                ; Set CR0 register&enter quasi 16-bit protected mode
    jmp CODE32_SEL:start32pm    ; FAR JMP to use a 32-bit code selector
                                ;     This enters 32-bit protected mode @ start32pm

.disk_error:
    xor ah, ah                  ; Int13h/AH=0 is drive reset
    int 0x13
    dec bp                      ; Decrease retry count
    jge .retry                  ; If retry count not exceeded then try again

disk_error_end:
    ; Unrecoverable error; print drive error; enter infinite loop
    mov si, diskErrorMsg        ; Display disk error message

error_print:
    call print_string
    cli
error_loop:
    hlt
    jmp error_loop

; Function: print_string
;           Display a string to the console on display page 0
;
; Inputs:   SI = Offset of address to print
; Clobbers: AX, BX, SI

print_string:
    mov ah, 0x0e                ; BIOS tty Print
    xor bx, bx                  ; Set display page to 0 (BL)
    jmp .getch
.repeat:
    int 0x10                    ; print character
.getch:
    lodsb                       ; Get character from string
    test al,al                  ; Have we reached end of string?
    jnz .repeat                 ;     if not process next character
.end:
    ret

;    Function: lba_to_chs
; Description: Translate Logical block address to CHS (Cylinder, Head, Sector).
;
;   Resources: http://www.ctyme.com/intr/rb-0607.htm
;              https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_block_addressing#CHS_conversion
;              https://stackoverflow.com/q/45434899/3857942
;              Sector    = (LBA mod SPT) + 1
;              Head      = (LBA / SPT) mod HEADS
;              Cylinder  = (LBA / SPT) / HEADS
;
;      Inputs: SI = LBA
;     Outputs: DL = Boot Drive Number
;              DH = Head
;              CH = Cylinder (lower 8 bits of 10-bit cylinder)
;              CL = Sector/Cylinder
;                   Upper 2 bits of 10-bit Cylinders in upper 2 bits of CL
;                   Sector in lower 6 bits of CL
;
;       Notes: Output registers match expectation of Int 13h/AH=2 inputs
;
lba_to_chs:
    push ax                    ; Preserve AX
    mov ax, si                 ; Copy LBA to AX
    xor dx, dx                 ; Upper 16-bit of 32-bit value set to 0 for DIV
    div word [sectorsPerTrack] ; 32-bit by 16-bit DIV : LBA / SPT
    mov cl, dl                 ; CL = S = LBA mod SPT
    inc cl                     ; CL = S = (LBA mod SPT) + 1
    xor dx, dx                 ; Upper 16-bit of 32-bit value set to 0 for DIV
    div word [numHeads]        ; 32-bit by 16-bit DIV : (LBA / SPT) / HEADS
    mov dh, dl                 ; DH = H = (LBA / SPT) mod HEADS
    mov dl, [bootDevice]       ; boot device, not necessary to set but convenient
    mov ch, al                 ; CH = C(lower 8 bits) = (LBA / SPT) / HEADS
    shl ah, 6                  ; Store upper 2 bits of 10-bit Cylinder into
    or  cl, ah                 ;     upper 2 bits of Sector (CL)
    pop ax                     ; Restore scratch registers
    ret

; Function: wait_8042_cmd
;           Wait until the Input Buffer Full bit in the keyboard controller's
;           status register becomes 0. After calls to this function it is
;           safe to send a command on Port 0x64
;
; Inputs:   None
; Clobbers: AX
; Returns:  None

KBC_STATUS_IBF_BIT EQU 1
wait_8042_cmd:
    in al, 0x64                ; Read keyboard controller status register
    test al, 1 << KBC_STATUS_IBF_BIT
                               ; Is bit 1 (Input Buffer Full) set?
    jnz wait_8042_cmd          ;     If it is then controller is busy and we
                               ;     can't send command byte, try again
    ret                        ; Otherwise buffer is clear and ready to send a command

; Function: wait_8042_data
;           Wait until the Output Buffer Empty (OBE) bit in the keyboard controller's
;           status register becomes 0. After a call to this function there is
;           data available to be read on port 0x60.
;
; Inputs:   None
; Clobbers: AX
; Returns:  None

KBC_STATUS_OBE_BIT EQU 0
wait_8042_data:
    in al, 0x64                ; Read keyboard controller status register
    test al, 1 << KBC_STATUS_OBE_BIT
                               ; Is bit 0 (Output Buffer Empty) set?
    jz wait_8042_data          ;     If not then no data waiting to be read, try again
    ret                        ; Otherwise data is ready to be read

; Function: a20_kbd_enable
;           Enable the A20 line via the keyboard controller
;
; Inputs:   None
; Clobbers: AX, CX
; Returns:  None

a20_kbd_enable:
    pushf
    cli                        ; Disable interrupts

    call wait_8042_cmd         ; When controller ready for command
    mov al, 0xad               ; Send command 0xad (disable keyboard).
    out 0x64, al

    call wait_8042_cmd         ; When controller ready for command
    mov al, 0xd0               ; Send command 0xd0 (read output port)
    out 0x64, al

    call wait_8042_data        ; Wait until controller has data
    in al, 0x60                ; Read data from keyboard
    mov cx, ax                 ;     CX = copy of byte read

    call wait_8042_cmd         ; Wait until controller is ready for a command
    mov al, 0xd1
    out 0x64, al               ; Send command 0xd1 (write output port)

    call wait_8042_cmd         ; Wait until controller is ready for a command
    mov ax, cx
    or al, 1 << 1              ; Write value back with bit 1 set
    out 0x60, al

    call wait_8042_cmd         ; Wait until controller is ready for a command
    mov al, 0xae
    out 0x64, al               ; Write command 0xae (enable keyboard)

    call wait_8042_cmd         ; Wait until controller is ready for command
    popf                       ; Restore flags including interrupt flag
    ret

; Function: a20_fast_enable
;           Enable the A20 line via System Control Port A
;
; Inputs:   None
; Clobbers: AX
; Returns:  None

a20_fast_enable:
    in al, 0x92                ; Read System Control Port A
    test al, 1 << 1
    jnz .finished              ; If bit 1 is set then A20 already enabled
    or al, 1 << 1              ; Set bit 1
    and al, ~(1 << 0)          ; Clear bit 0 to avoid issuing a reset
    out 0x92, al               ; Send Enabled A20 and disabled Reset to control port
.finished:
    ret

; Function: a20_bios_enable
;           Enable the A20 line via the BIOS function Int 15h/AH=2401
;
; Inputs:   None
; Clobbers: AX
; Returns:  None

a20_bios_enable:
    mov ax, 0x2401             ; Int 15h/AH=2401 enables A20 on BIOS with this feature
    int 0x15
    ret

; Function: a20_check
;           Determine if the A20 line is enabled or disabled
;
; Inputs:   None
; Clobbers: AX, CX, ES
; Returns:  ZF=1 if A20 enabled, ZF=0 if disabled

a20_check:
    pushf                      ; Save flags so Interrupt Flag (IF) can be restored
    push ds                    ; Save volatile registers
    push si
    push di

    cli                        ; Disable interrupts
    xor ax, ax
    mov ds, ax
    mov si, 0x600              ; 0x0000:0x0600 (0x00600) address we will test

    mov ax, 0xffff
    mov es, ax
    mov di, 0x610              ; 0xffff:0x0610 (0x00600) address we will test
                               ; The physical address pointed to depends on whether
                               ; memory wraps or not. If it wraps then A20 is disabled

    mov cl, [si]               ; Save byte at 0x0000:0x0600
    mov ch, [es:di]            ; Save byte at 0xffff:0x0610

    mov byte [si], 0xaa        ; Write 0xaa to 0x0000:0x0600
    mov byte [es:di], 0x55     ; Write 0x55 to 0xffff:0x0610

    xor ax, ax                 ; Set return value 0
    cmp byte [si], 0x55        ; If 0x0000:0x0600 is 0x55 and not 0xaa
    je .disabled               ;     then memory wrapped because A20 is disabled

    dec ax                     ; A20 Disable, set AX to -1
.disabled:
    ; Cleanup by restoring original bytes in memory. This must be in reverse
    ; order from the order they were originally saved
    mov [es:di], ch            ; Restore data saved data to 0xffff:0x0610
    mov [si], cl               ; Restore data saved data to 0x0000:0x0600

    pop di                     ; Restore non-volatile registers
    pop si
    pop ds
    popf                       ; Restore Flags (including IF)
    test al, al                ; Return ZF=1 if A20 enabled, ZF=0 if disabled
    ret

; Function: a20_enable
;           Enable the A20 line
;
; Inputs:   None
; Clobbers: AX, BX, CX, DX
; Returns:  ZF=0 if A20 not enabled, ZF=1 if A20 enabled

a20_enable:
    call a20_check             ; Is A20 already enabled?
    jnz .a20_on                ;     If so then we're done ZF=1

    call a20_bios_enable       ; Try enabling A20 via BIOS
    call a20_check             ; Is A20 now enabled?
    jnz .a20_on                ;     If so then we're done ZF=1

    call a20_kbd_enable        ; Try enabling A20 via keyboard controller
    call a20_check             ; Is A20 now enabled?
    jnz .a20_on                ;     If so then we're done ZF=1

    call a20_fast_enable       ; Try enabling A20 via fast method
    call a20_check             ; Is A20 now enabled?
    jnz .a20_on                ;     If so then we're done ZF=1
.a20_err:
    xor ax, ax                 ; If A20 disabled then return with ZF=0
.a20_on:
    ret

bits 32
start32pm:
    mov ax, DATA32_SEL         ; Set up the 32-bit data selectors
    mov ds, ax
    mov es, ax
    mov fs, ax
    mov gs, ax

    ; Zero extend SP to ESP. SP is already at 0x7c00
    ; DL still contains the boot drive number
    movzx esp, sp

    ; Execute stage2 code
    jmp STAGE2_RUN_OFS

; 32-bit GDT for protected mode
; Macro to build a GDT descriptor entry
%define MAKE_GDT_DESC(base, limit, access, flags)  \
    (((base & 0x00FFFFFF) << 16) |  \
    ((base & 0xFF000000) << 32) |  \
    (limit & 0x0000FFFF) |      \
    ((limit & 0x000F0000) << 32) |  \
    ((access & 0xFF) << 40) |  \
    ((flags & 0x0F) << 52))

; GDT structure
gdt_start:
    dq MAKE_GDT_DESC(0, 0, 0, 0); null descriptor
gdt32_code:
    dq MAKE_GDT_DESC(0, 0x000fffff, 10011010b, 1100b)
                               ; 32-bit code, 4kb gran, limit 0xffffffff bytes, base=0
gdt32_data:
    dq MAKE_GDT_DESC(0, 0x000fffff, 10010010b, 1100b)
                               ; 32-bit data, 4kb gran, limit 0xffffffff bytes, base=0
gdt_end:

CODE32_SEL equ gdt32_code - gdt_start
DATA32_SEL equ gdt32_data - gdt_start

; GDT record
align 4
    dw 0                       ; Padding align dd GDT in gdtr on 4 byte boundary
gdtr:
    dw gdt_end - gdt_start - 1
                               ; limit (Size of GDT - 1)
    dd gdt_start               ; base of GDT

; If not using a BPB (via bpb.inc) provide default Heads and SPT values
%ifndef WITH_BPB
numHeads:        dw 2          ; 1.44MB Floppy has 2 heads & 18 sector per track
sectorsPerTrack: dw 18
%endif

bootDevice:      db 0x00
diskErrorMsg:    db "Unrecoverable disk error!", 0
noa20_err:       db "A20 line couldn't be enabled", 10, 13, 0

; Pad boot sector to 510 bytes and add 2 byte boot signature for 512 total bytes
TIMES 510-($-$$) db  0
dw 0xaa55

; Beginning of stage2. This is at 0x8000 and will allow your stage2 to be 32.5KiB
; before running into problems. DL will be set to the drive number originally
; passed to us by the BIOS.

NUM_STAGE2_SECTORS equ (stage2_end-stage2_start+511) / 512
                               ; Number of 512 byte sectors stage2 uses.

stage2_start:
    ; Insert stage2 binary here. It is done this way since we
    ; can determine the size(and number of sectors) to load since
    ;     Size = stage2_end-stage2_start
    incbin "kernel.bin"

; End of stage2. Make sure this label is LAST in this file!
stage2_end:

; Fill out this file to produce a 1.44MB floppy image
TIMES 1024*1440-($-$$) db 0x00

First build kernel.bin from your code in kernel.asm:

nasm -f bin kernel.asm -o kernel.bin

Create a 1.44MiB floppy (disk.img) that contains the code and data in kernel.bin and a Volume Boot Record (VBR) that reads the kernel into memory:

nasm -f bin boot.asm -o disk.img

It can be run in QEMU from the floppy disk image using:

qemu-system-i386 -fda disk.img

This version of the code may eventually require an ORG 0x8000 in your kernel instead of the Multiboot version I presented earlier that may have required ORG 0x101000 as you continue to develop your kernel. An example of code that won't work if you don't properly specify the ORG (origin point) is as follows:

; Example program that uses an absolute reference to a label
; that won't work unless a proper ORG is used. Removing the ORG
; or using the wrong value will cause the code to not work as
; expected

org 0x8000
bits 32
start:
    mov eax, [okmsg]          ; Using an absolute reference to a label
    mov dword [0xb8000], eax  ; Write value to display
    hlt

okmsg: dd  0x2f4b2f4f