How does the "Send Mail As" feature work (at a technical level) in Gmail?

I don't have any technical problems, but I have a question that I would like to be answered out of curiosity.

Here is my current understanding of how email works:

One of the privileges of having your own domain is that you can hook it up to IMAP/POP3/SMTP servers and use them to send and receive messages to and from "anyone@yourdomain.com". With spam being such a problem, however, the SMTP server that you use to send messages must add a bunch of headers (DKIM, SPF, etc) to each message that you send in order to prove that the SMTP server has the authority to send emails from that domain. The receiving SMTP server can cross-check those headers with DNS records that it finds to verify the legitimacy of the email message.

So if you want to send emails with your domain cheaply, you can use Gmail's "Send Mail As" feature. I followed this help article to get mine working: https://support.google.com/domains/answer/9437157

Note: I unchecked the "Treat as an alias" option during the setup.

But wait... no additional DNS configuration required? I have my domain registered with Cloudflare, and there are no entries related to Google in there.

There is this step in the setup process:

But it seems that this only for Google to prevent you from using their servers to send spam. What is stopping Google from impersonating any email address they want? Why do receiving SMTP servers trust an email from "anyone@yourdomain.com" if Google's SMTP servers have no way of adding legitimate SPF/DKIM headers?

The short answer is that nothing prevents Google from doing this, and that DMARC was created for exactly this case.

There is nothing that stops Google from impersonating any domain. However, there are things receivers can (and should) do when they receive an email which isn't send from the server indicated in the From: field.

Try sending an email from the alias you just added to a different @gmail.com inbox. You will see that it says via gmail.com behind the sender email address. But other email receivers might do more: flag this message with red exclamation marks and scam warnings, throw it into spam or even deny receiving it completely. Gmail probably has some hardcoded trust, but try doing this from your own SMTP server and the above will very likely happen.

As you say in your question, you can authorize your emails by marking gmail.com as an authorized sender with SPF (which protects against forging from other domains, but doesn't stop Google), or even sign your emails with DKIM (not possible from Gmail UI, but you can do this in some email clients or send email with a custom Python script like me; Google can't do this without knowing the key).

However, that only solves one side of the problem – authorizing legitimate email messages. But what if an SMTP server still receives an unverified email? What if they have previously received an email from the same sender which was DKIM signed? What if DKIM passes, but SPF fails?

Because the behavior in that case is largely unspecified, and also the sender wants to check if their DKIM/SPF authorizations are actually working, and if anyone is attempting to spoof them, another standard was created: DMARC. It introduces another DNS TXT record where you can say what checks are required to pass, what to do if they fail, and also what basic analytics should the receivers report to the owner of the domain.